International Law. A Treatise Novel Chapters
List of most recent chapters published for the International Law. A Treatise novel. A total of 198 chapters have been translated and the release date of the last chapter is Apr 02, 2024
Latest Release: Chapter 1 : International Law. A Treatise.Volume I.by La.s.sa Francis Oppenheim.PREFACE TO THE SECON
International Law. A Treatise.Volume I.by La.s.sa Francis Oppenheim.PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION The course of events since 1905, when this work first made its appearance, and the results of further research have necessitated not only the thorough revisi
- 101 [Sidenote: Treason.]-- 162. Treason can be committed by a soldier or an ordinary subject of a belligerent, but it can also be committed by an inhabitant of an occupied enemy territory or even by the subject of a neutral State temporarily staying there, an
- 102 [Footnote 329: This is not identical with so-called _constructive_ occupation, but is really _effective_ occupation. An occupation is constructive only if an invader declares districts as occupied over which he actually does not exercise control--for inst
- 103 -- 176. It is evident that in times when a belligerent could destroy all public and private enemy property he was able to seize, no special rule existed regarding private enemy s.h.i.+ps and private enemy property carried by them on the sea. But the pract
- 104 (3) When anch.o.r.ed automatic contact mines are employed, every possible precaution must be taken for the security of peaceful navigation. The belligerents must provide, as far as possible, for these mines becoming harmless after a limited time has elaps
- 105 [Sidenote: Vessels in Distress.]-- 189. Instances have occurred when enemy vessels which were forced by stress of weather to seek refuge in a belligerent's harbour were granted exemption from seizure.[376] Thus, when in 1746, during war with Spain, t
- 106 [Footnote 394: Article 40 of the Naval Prize Bill of 1911 runs as follows:-- (1) His Majesty in Council may, in relation to any war, make such orders as may seem expedient according to circ.u.mstances for prohibiting or allowing, wholly or in certain case
- 107 526-554--Nippold, II. -- 33--Scott, _Conferences_, pp.599-614--Takahas.h.i.+, pp. 375-385--Fauchille in _R.G._ VI. (1899), pp. 291-302--Bayer, in _R.G._ VIII. (1901), pp. 225-230--Renault in _A.J._ II. pp. 295-306--Higgins, _War and the Private Citizen_ (
- 108 ESPIONAGE, TREASON, RUSES See, besides the literature quoted above at the commencement of ---- 159 and 163, Pradier-Fodere, VIII. No. 3157, and Bentwich in _The Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation_, New Series, X.(1909), pp. 243-249.[Sidenot
- 109 532-547--Nordon in _The Law Magazine and Review_, x.x.xII. (1907), pp. 166-188. See also the literature quoted above, vol. I., at the commencement of -- 286.[Sidenote: Uncertainty of Rules concerning Interference with Submarine Telegraph Cables.]-- 214. A
- 110 III FLAGS OF TRUCE Hall, -- 190--Lawrence, -- 211--Westlake, II. p. 81--Moore, VII. -- 1157--Phillimore, III. -- 115--Halleck, II. pp. 333, 334--Taylor, -- 510--Bluntschli, ---- 681-684--Heffter, -- 126--Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. pp. 421-423--Ullmann, -
- 111 [Footnote 445: During the Franco-German War the Germans granted these most favourable conditions to the French forces that surrendered Belfort on February 15, 1871.][Sidenote: Form of Capitulations.]-- 228. No rule of International Law exists regarding th
- 112 [Footnote 458: See Pradier-Fodere, VII. No. 2901.][Sidenote: Commencement of Armistices.]-- 238. In case the contrary is not stipulated, an armistice commences the very moment the agreement upon it is complete. But often the parties stipulate in the agree
- 113 543--Rivier, II. pp. 298-299--Calvo, IV. ---- 2041-2043--Martens, II. -- 121--Merignhac, pp. 210-218--Holland, _War_, Nos.119-120--Bordwell, p. 305--Spaight, pp. 462-465--_Land Warfare_, ---- 452-460--Halleck in _A.J._ VI. (1912), pp. 107-118.[Sidenote: R
- 114 (15) Use of enemy uniforms and the like during battle, use of the enemy flag during attack by a belligerent vessel.(16) Violation of enemy individuals furnished with pa.s.sports or safe-conducts, violation of safeguards.(17) Violation of bearers of flags
- 115 [Footnote 491: Belligerents sometimes take hostages to secure compliance with requisitions, contributions, ransom bills, and the like, but such cases have nothing to do with illegitimate warfare: see above, -- 116, p.153, note 1, and -- 170, p. 213, note
- 116 [Footnote 499: It should be mentioned that a premature annexation can become valid through the occupation in question becoming soon afterwards effective. Thus, although the annexation of the South African Republic, on September 1, 1900, was premature, it
- 117 [Sidenote: Principle of _Uti Possidetis_.]-- 273. Unless the parties stipulate otherwise, the effect of a treaty of peace is that conditions remain as at the conclusion of peace. Thus, all moveable State property, as munitions, provisions, arms, money, ho
- 118 [Sidenote: Validity of Legitimate Acts.]-- 282. Postliminium has no effect upon such acts of the former military occupant connected with the occupied territory and the individuals and property thereon as were legitimate acts of warfare. On the contrary, t
- 119 As privateering was legitimate and in general use, neutral commerce was considerably disturbed during every war between naval States. Now in 1780, during war between Great Britain, her American colonies, France, and Spain, Russia sent a circular[536] to E
- 120 -- 295. Since neutrality is an att.i.tude during the condition of war only, this att.i.tude calls into existence special rights and duties which do not generally obtain. They come into existence by the fact that the outbreak of war has been notified or ha
- 121 (3) In 1848, during war between Germany and Denmark, Great Britain, fulfilling a treaty obligation towards Denmark, prohibited the exportation of arms to Germany, whereas such exportation to Denmark remained undisturbed.[571](4) In 1900, during the South
- 122 [Sidenote: Rights and Duties of Neutrals contested.]-- 315. Some writers[584] maintain that no rights derive from neutrality for neutrals, and, consequently, no duties for belligerents, because everything which must be left undone by a belligerent regardi
- 123 [Footnote 601: See above, -- 71, p. 87; Lawrence, _War_, pp. 268-294; Ariga, ---- 16-22.][Footnote 602: See Lawrence, _War_, pp. 279-289, and Takahas.h.i.+, pp.462-466.][Footnote 603: See Lawrence, _War_, pp. 291-294, and Takahas.h.i.+, pp.437-444.][Footn
- 124 [Footnote 622: See Kleen, vol. I. -- 115.]While the stipulation of article 21 cannot meet with any objection, the stipulation of article 23 of Convention XIII. is of a very doubtful character. This article enacts that a neutral Power may allow prizes to e
- 125 [Footnote 636: Germany, Domingo, Siam, and Persia have entered a reservation against article 12.][Footnote 637: Germany has entered a reservation against article 13.][Sidenote: Building and Fitting-out of Vessels intended for Naval Operations.]-- 334. Whe
- 126 Article 13 of Convention V. settles the controversy by enacting that a neutral who receives prisoners of war who have escaped or who are brought there by troops of the enemy taking refuge on neutral territory, shall leave them at liberty, but that, if he
- 127 A sufficient number of men must, however, be always left on board for looking after the vessel. The officers may be left at liberty on giving their word not to quit neutral territory without permission."If a vessel is granted asylum for the whole tim
- 128 [Footnote 688: See Wharton, III. -- 391, and Moore, VII. -- 1309.][Sidenote: Supply on the part of Subjects of Neutrals.]-- 350. In contradistinction to supply to belligerents by neutrals, such supply by subjects of neutrals is lawful, and neutrals are no
- 129 The case is different when a belligerent intends to arrange the transmitting of messages through a submarine cable purposely laid over neutral territory or through telegraph and telephone wires purposely erected on neutral territory. This would seem to be
- 130 [Footnote 721: See _Annuaire_, XXIV. (1911), p. 302.]IX RIGHT OF ANGARY Hall, -- 278--Lawrence, -- 233--Westlake, II. p. 119--Phillimore, III. -- 29--Halleck, I. p. 485--Taylor, -- 641--Walker, -- 69--Bluntschli, -- 795A--Heffter, -- 150--Bulmerincq in Ho
- 131 -- 369. A blockade is termed strategic if it forms part of other military operations directed against the coast which is blockaded, or if it be declared in order to cut off supply to enemy forces on sh.o.r.e. In contradistinction to blockade strategic, on
- 132 (1) There must be a _declaration_ as well as a _notification_ in order to make a blockade binding (article 8). If there is either no proper declaration or no proper notification, the blockade is not binding.(2) A _declaration_ of blockade is made either b
- 133 BREACH OF BLOCKADE See the literature quoted above at the commencement of -- 368.[Sidenote: Definition of Breach of Blockade.]-- 383. Breach or violation of blockade is the unallowed ingress or egress of a vessel in spite of the blockade. The attempted br
- 134 [Footnote 794: The _Neutralitet_ (1805), 6 C. Rob. 30.][Footnote 795: The _Spes_ and _Irene_ (1804), 5 C. Rob. 76.][Footnote 796: See Holland, _Prize Law_, ---- 135-136.]The Declaration of London recognises that necessity makes exceptions to the rule that
- 135 pp. 214-217 (1894)--Bar in _R.I._ XXVI. (1894), pp. 401-414--Brocher de la Flechere, in _R.I._ 2nd Ser. I. (1899), pp. 337-353--Fauchille in _R.G._ IV. (1897), pp. 297-323--Kleen in _R.G._ XI. (1904), pp.353-362--Gover in _The Journal of the Society of Co
- 136 [Footnote 824: See Hall, -- 246, p. 690, note 2; Taylor, -- 662; Wharton, III. -- 373.][Footnote 825: See Moore, VII. -- 1254, and Holland, _Letters to the "Times" upon War and Neutrality_ (1909) pp. 108-112.][Footnote 826: According to the Brit
- 137 -- 396_a_. Besides the seventeen groups of articles contained in the free list, there are two other groups of free articles.Firstly, those articles which serve exclusively to aid the sick and wounded. They, according to article 29, No. 1, of the Declarati
- 138 Thus this representative body of authorities of all nations has fully adopted the American application of the doctrine of continuous voyages to contraband, and thereby recognised the possibility of circuitous as well as indirect carriage of contraband.[Fo
- 139 (1) According to article 44, a vessel which has been stopped for carrying contraband and which is not herself liable to be confiscated on account of the proportion of contraband on board, may--not must--when the circ.u.mstances permit it, be allowed to co
- 140 [Sidenote: Unneutral Service creating Enemy Character.]-- 410. In contradistinction to cases of unneutral service which are similar to carriage of contraband, the Declaration of London enumerates in article 46 four cases of such kinds of unneutral service
- 141 -- 414. Right of visitation[886] is the right of belligerents to visit and eventually search neutral merchantmen for the purpose of ascertaining whether these vessels really belong to the merchant marine of neutrals, and, if this is found to be the case,
- 142 [Footnote 904: The _Elsebe_, 5 C Rob. 173.]Since Great Britain--see above, -- 417--has abandoned her opposition to the right of convoy and has agreed to articles 61 and 62 of the Declaration of London which lay down rules concerning the matter, the resist
- 143 But the matter of recapture of neutral prizes is not settled, no rule of International Law and no uniform practice of the several States being formulated regarding it. Very few treaties touch upon it, and the munic.i.p.al regulations of the different Stat
- 144 [Footnote 932: _De la saisie des batiments neutres_ (1759), vol. II. p.21.]A somewhat similar proposal was made by Tetens[933] in 1805.[Footnote 933: _Considerations sur les droits reciproques des puissances belligerantes et des puissances neutres sur mer
- 145 The deciding tribunal determines what language it will itself use and what languages may be used before it, but in all cases the official language of the National Courts which have had cognisance of the case may be used before it (article 24).For all noti
- 146 IV ACTION IN DAMAGES INSTEAD OF APPEAL Scott in _A.J._ V. (1911), pp. 302-324.[Sidenote: Reason for Action in Damages instead of Appeal.]-- 452. According to the Const.i.tution of the United States of America, and probably that of some other States, no ap
- 147 Fait a Saint-Petersbourg, le vingt-neuf novembre onze decembre, mil huit cent soixante-huit.APPENDIX III DECLARATION CONCERNING EXPANDING (DUM-DUM) BULLETS _Signed at the Hague, July 29, 1899_ Les Soussignes, Plenipotentiaires des Puissances representees
- 148 Apres chaque combat, l'occupant du champ de bataille prendra des mesures pour rechercher les blesses et pour les faire proteger, ainsi que les morts, contre le pillage et les mauvais traitements.Il veillera a ce que l'inhumation ou l'incine
- 149 Les voitures militaires, autres que celles du service de sante, pourront etre capturees avec leurs attelages.Le personnel civil et les divers moyens de transport provenant de la requisition, y compris materiel de chemin de fer et les bateaux utilises pour
- 150 En foi de quoi, les Plenipotentiaires ont signe la presente Convention et l'ont revetue de leurs cachets.Fait a Geneve, le six juillet mil neuf cent six, en un seul exemplaire, qui restera depose dans les archives de la Confederation suisse, et dont
- 151 En cas de dissentiment grave ou de conflit, avant d'en appeler aux armes, les Puissances contractantes conviennent d'avoir recours, en tant que les circonstances le permettront, aux bons offices ou a la mediation d'une ou de plusieurs Puiss
- 152 Article 20.La Commission a la faculte, avec l'a.s.sentiment des Parties, de se transporter momentanement sur les lieux ou elle juge utile de recourir a ce moyen d'information ou d'y deleguer un ou plusieurs de ses membres.L'autorisatio
- 153 L'arbitrage international a pour objet le reglement de litiges entre les etats par des juges de leur choix et sur la base du respect du droit.Le recours a l'arbitrage implique l'engagement de se soumettre de bonne foi a la sentence.Article
- 154 Le Conseil arrete son reglement d'ordre ainsi que tous autres reglements necessaires.Il decide toutes les questions administratives qui pourraient surgir touchant le fonctionnement de la Cour.Il a tout pouvoir quant a la nomination, la suspension ou
- 155 Article 64.Toute piece produite par l'une des Parties doit etre communiquee, en copie certifiee conforme, a l'autre Partie.Article 65.A moins de circonstances speciales, le Tribunal ne se reunit qu'apres la cloture de l'instruction.Art
- 156 Le compromis determine le delai dans lequel la demande de revision doit etre formee.Article 84.La sentence arbitrale n'est obligatoire que pour les Parties en litige.Lorsqu'il s'agit de l'interpretation d'une convention a laquelle
- 157 Les ratifications seront deposees a La Haye.Le premier depot de ratifications sera constate par un proces-verbal signe par les representants des Puissances qui y prennent part et par le Ministre des Affaires etrangeres des Pays-Bas.Les depots ulterieurs d
- 158 Article 3.La Partie belligerante qui violerait les dispositions dudit Reglement sera tenue a indemnite, s'il y a lieu. Elle sera responsable de tous actes commis par les personnes faisant partie de sa force armee.Article 4.La presente Convention dmen
- 159 Le salaire des prisonniers contribuera a adoucir leur position, et le surplus leur sera compte au moment de leur liberation, sauf defalcation des frais d'entretien.Article 7.Le Gouvernement au pouvoir duquel se trouvent les prisonniers de guerre est
- 160 (_e_) d'employer des armes, des projectiles ou des matieres propres a causer des maux superflus; (_f_) d'user indment du pavillon parlementaire, du pavillon national ou des insignes militaires et de l'uniforme de l'ennemi, ainsi que de
- 161 SECTION III.--DE L'AUTORITe MILITAIRE SUR LE TERRITOIRE DE L'eTAT ENNEMI.Article 42.Un territoire est considere comme occupe lorsqu'il se trouve place de fait sous l'autorite de l'armee ennemie.L'occupation ne s'etend qu
- 162 (_b_) d'utiliser toute installation de ce genre etablie par eux avant la guerre sur le territoire de la Puissance neutre dans un but exclusivement militaire, et qui n'a pas ete ouverte au service de la correspondance publique.Article 4.Des corps
- 163 CHAPITRE V.--_Dispositions finales._ Article 20.Les dispositions de la presente Convention ne sont applicables qu'entre les Puissances contractantes et seulement si les belligerants sont tous parties a la Convention.Article 21.La presente Convention
- 164 La presente Convention produira effet, pour les Puissances qui auront participe au premier depot de ratifications, soixante jours apres la date du proces-verbal de ce depot et, pour les Puissances qui ratifieront ulterieurement ou qui adhereront, soixante
- 165 Il est interdit de placer des mines automatiques de contact devant les cotes et les ports de l'adversaire, dans le seul but d'intercepter la navigation de commerce.Article 3.Lorsque les mines automatiques de contact amarrees sont employees, tout
- 166 Ces requisitions seront en rapport avec les ressources de la localite.Elles ne seront reclamees qu'avec l'autorisation du commandant de ladite force navale et elles seront, autant que possible, payees au comptant; sinon elles seront constatees p
- 167 Article 5.Les batiments-hopitaux militaires seront distingues par une peinture exterieure blanche avec une bande horizontale verte d'un metre et demi de largeur environ.Les batiments qui sont mentionnes dans les articles 2 et 3, seront distingues par
- 168 En cas d'operations de guerre entre les forces de terre et de mer des belligerants, les dispositions de la presente Convention ne seront applicables qu'aux forces embarquees.Article 23.La presente Convention sera ratifiee aussitot que possible.L
- 169 Article 10.La presente Convention sera ratifiee aussitot que possible.Les ratifications seront deposees a La Haye.Le premier depot de ratifications sera constate par un proces-verbal signe par les representants des Puissances qui y prennent part et par le
- 170 Si, conformement a l'article 3--2'o c, le recours est fonde sur la violation d'une disposition legale edictee par le belligerant capteur, la Cour applique cette disposition.La Cour peut ne pas tenir compte des decheances de procedure edicte
- 171 La Cour decide du choix de la langue dont elle fera usage et des langues dont l'emploi sera autorise devant elle.Dans tous les cas, la langue officielle des tribunaux nationaux, qui ont connu de l'affaire, peut etre employee devant la Cour.Artic
- 172 Article 41.La Cour notifie d'office aux parties toutes decisions ou ordonnances prises en leur absence.Article 42.La Cour apprecie librement l'ensemble des actes, preuves et declarations orales.Article 43.Les deliberations de la Cour ont lieu a
- 173 Le changement a operer par suite d'une adhesion ne se produira qu'a partir du 1'er janvier qui suit la date a laquelle l'adhesion a son effet, a moins que la Puissance adherente ne soit une Puissance belligerante, cas auquel elle peut
- 174 Article 14.Un navire de guerre belligerant ne peut prolonger son sejour dans un port neutre au dela de la duree legale que pour cause d'avaries ou a raison de l'etat de la mer. Il devra partir des que la cause du r.e.t.a.r.d aura cesse.Les regle
- 175 Ce Gouvernement transmettra immediatement a toutes les autres Puissances copie certifiee conforme de la notification ainsi que de l'acte d'adhesion, en indiquant la date a laquelle il a recu la notification.Article 31.La presente Convention prod
- 176 Article 8.La Cour elit son President et son Vice-President a la majorite absolue des suffrages exprimes. Apres deux tours de scrutin, l'election se fait a la majorite relative et, en cas de partage des voix, le sort decide.Article 9.Les juges de la C
- 177 Pour toutes les notifications a faire, notamment aux Parties, aux temoins et aux experts, la Cour peut s'adresser directement au Gouvernement de la Puissance sur le territoire de laquelle la notification doit etre effectuee. Il en est de meme s'
- 178 _Conformement a la Declaration de Paris de 1856, le blocus, pour etre obligatoire, doit etre effectif, c'est-a-dire maintenu par une force suffisante pour interdire reellement l'acces du littoral ennemi._ La premiere condition pour qu'un bl
- 179 Article 12._Les regles relatives a la declaration et a la notification de blocus sont applicables dans le cas ou le blocus serait etendu ou viendrait a etre repris apres avoir ete leve._ Un blocus est etendu au-dela de ses limites primitives; c'est, pour
- 180 Les articles 22 et 24 enumerent les objets et materiaux qui sont susceptibles de const.i.tuer de la contrebande de guerre et qui en const.i.tuent effectivement, quand ils ont une certaine destination, qui est determinee par les articles 30 et 33. La disti
- 181 _Les objets et materiaux qui ne sont pas susceptibles de servir aux usages de la guerre, ne peuvent pas etre declares contrebande de guerre._ L'existence d'une liste dite _libre_ (article 28) rend utile cette affirmation que les objets qui ne sont pas s
- 182 Article 32._Les papiers de bord font preuve complete de l'itineraire du navire transportant de la contrebande absolue, a moins que le navire soit rencontre ayant manifestement devie de la route qu'il devrait suivre d'apres ses papiers de bord et sans p
- 183 Article 44._Le navire arrete pour cause de contrebande et non susceptible de confiscation a raison de la proportion de la contrebande peut etre autorise, suivant les circonstances, a continuer sa route, si le capitaine est pret a livrer la contrebande au
- 184 Article 49._Par exception, un navire neutre, saisi par un batiment belligerant et qui serait sujet a confiscation, peut etre detruit, si l'observation de l'article 48 peut compromettre la securite du batiment de guerre ou le succes des operations dans l
- 185 Enfin, la question de savoir si un navire perd son caractere neutre, lorsqu'il effectue une navigation que l'ennemi reservait avant la guerre aux seuls navires nationaux a ete soulevee. Une entente n'a pu avoir lieu, comme cela a ete explique plus haut
- 186 Il peut etre utile d'indiquer certains cas dans lesquels la saisie du navire serait justifiee, quelle que pt etre la decision du tribunal des prises. C'est notamment celui de jet, de suppression ou de destruction volontaire de tout ou partie des papiers
- 187 Article 2.Dans le cas de recours exerce devant la Cour Internationale des prises sous la forme d'une action en indemnite, l'article 8 de la convention est sans application; la Cour n'a pas a p.r.o.noncer la validite ou la nullite de la capture, non plu
- 188 (2) Such s.h.i.+p shall be detained until the trial and conviction or acquittal of the master or owner, and until all penalties inflicted on the master or owner have been paid, or the master or owner has given security for the payment of such penalties to
- 189 [Sidenote: Regulations as to Proceedings against the Offender and the s.h.i.+p.]20. Where any offence against this Act has been committed by any person by reason whereof a s.h.i.+p, or s.h.i.+p and equipment, or arms and munitions of war, has or have beco
- 190 "United Kingdom" includes the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands, and other adjacent islands: [Sidenote: "British Possessions:"]"British possession" means any territory, colony, or place being part of Her Majesty's dominio
- 191 [Sidenote: Jurisdiction of High Court of Admiralty.]4. The High Court of Admiralty shall have Jurisdiction throughout Her Majesty's Dominions as a Prize Court.The High Court of Admiralty as a Prize Court shall have Power to enforce any Order or Decre
- 192 [Sidenote: Adjudication by Court.]20. After the Return of the Monition, the Court shall, on Production of the Preparatory Examinations and s.h.i.+p Papers, proceed with all convenient Speed either to condemn or to release the captured s.h.i.+p.[Sidenote:
- 193 Provided, that nothing in the present Section shall extend to the a.s.serted Interest of a Flag Officer claiming to share by virtue of his Flag._Offences against Law of Prize._ [Sidenote: In case of Offence by Captors, Prize to be reserved for Crown.]37.
- 194 51. Any Action or Proceeding shall not lie in any Part of Her Majesty's Dominions against any Person acting under the Authority or in the Execution or intended Execution or in pursuance of this Act for any alleged Irregularity or Trespa.s.s, or other
- 195 5. Section twenty-five of the Government of India Act, 1800, is hereby repealed.APPENDIX XII NAVAL PRIZE BILL OF 1911 _Pa.s.sed by the House of Commons, but thrown out by the House of Lords_ A Bill to Consolidate, with Amendments, the Enactments relating
- 196 [Sidenote: Prohibition of officer of prize court acting as advocate, &c.[27 & 28 Vict. c. 25, ss. 14, 15.]]13. It shall not be lawful for any registrar, marshal, or other officer of the Supreme Prize Court or of any other prize court, directly or indirect
- 197 (2) The master or owner, or his agent, may, with the consent of the re-captors, unload and dispose of the goods on board the s.h.i.+p before adjudication.(3) If the s.h.i.+p does not, within six months, return to a port of His Majesty's dominions, the re
- 198 (4) take away, abridge, or control, further or otherwise than as expressly provided by this Act, any right, power, or prerogative of His Majesty the King in right of His Crown, or in right of His office of Admiralty, or any right or power of the Admiralty